This introductory chapter will briefly describe the evidence for the use of cardiac rehabilitation (CR) in the management of coronary heart disease and how this evidence has influenced the shift from exercise-only programmes to the comprehensive multidisciplinary CR programmes that are prominent in the UK today.
Background
By 2005 coronary heart disease (CHD) had become the leading cause of death in the UK, killing more than 110,000 people each year in England alone (Department of Health, 2005). Furthermore, approximately 275,000 people experienced a myocardial infarction (MI), or heart attack, each year, with a further 1.4 million people suffering from angina (Department of Health, 2005). Currently coronary heart disease accounts for approximately one in five deaths in men and one in six deaths in women (British Heart Foundation, 2008). The National Service Framework (NSF) for Coronary Heart Disease, published in March 2000, set out the government's intention to improve the care of patients with CHD over a 10-year period (Department of Health, 2000). The NSF for CHD set out 12 standards for the improved prevention, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of people with coronary heart disease and aimed to secure fair access to high-quality services. One such service is cardiac rehabilitation, and chapter 7 of the NSF, "Cardiac Rehabilitation", outlined a national standard (Standard Twelve) for the rehabilitation of patients with CHD:
NHS trusts should put in place agreed protocols/systems of care so that, prior to leaving hospital, people admitted to hospital suffering from coronary heart disease have been invited to participate in a multidisciplinary programme of secondary prevention and cardiac rehabilitation. The aim of the programme will be to reduce their risk of subsequent cardiac problems and to promote their return to a full and normal life. (Department of Health, 2000)
Cardiac Rehabilitation
In 1993 cardiac rehabilitation was defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as:
the sum of activities required to influence favourably the underlying cause of the disease, as well as the best possible, physical, mental and social conditions, so that they [people] may, by their own efforts preserve or resume when lost, as normal a place as possible in the community. Rehabilitation cannot be regarded as an isolated form or stage of therapy but must be integrated within secondary prevention services of which it forms only one facet. (World Health Organization, 1993)
The stated aim of the WHO definition of cardiac rehabilitation that it must "be integrated within secondary prevention services" has been accepted as the norm for CR services today. The drive towards helping individuals to return to "their former way of life" facilitated the rise of multidisciplinary cardiac rehabilitation (Dusseldorp et al., 1999). Multidisciplinary CR involves using a team of nurses, exercise specialists, psychologists, dieticians and other health professionals to bring together medical treatment, education, counselling, exercise training, risk-factor modification and secondary prevention (Thompson and De Bono, 1999). The definition of cardiac rehabilitation in the NSF for CHD acknowledges these factors and updates the earlier WHO definition, incorporating the concepts of lifestyle change and individual confidence:
To enable people to achieve the lifestyle changes that they want to make and to regain their confidence so that they can enjoy the best possible physical, mental and emotional health and so return to as full and as normal a life as possible. (Department of Health, 2000)
Does Cardiac Rehabilitation Work?
Meta-analyses of the effectiveness of cardiac rehabilitation programmes in the late 1980s showed that CR was associated with a reduction in both cardiac and all-cause mortality (O'Connor et al., 1989; Oldridge et al, 1988). A decade later, a University of York NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination report (1998) suggested that cardiac rehabilitation could "promote recovery, enable patients to achieve and maintain better health, and reduce risk of death in people with heart disease". As the efficacy of CR became evident in the 1990s, the number of CR programmes across the country multiplied and the importance of increasing attendance at them became a priority. A randomised controlled trial by Wyer et al. (2001) in Gloucestershire showed that simple, cost-effective and theory-driven interventions (in this case an invitation letter based on a health behaviour change model: the Theory of Planned Behaviour) could increase attendance at cardiac rehabilitation, enabling more patients to experience its perceived benefits. However, UK statistics at this time suggested that only approximately 23 per cent of all MI patients were enrolling on CR, with a slightly higher figure for those undergoing a coronary artery bypass graft (CABG), "participation rates being between 33% and 56%" (Bethell et al., 2001). Adherence to CR programmes was also proving problematic, with only a third of patients continuing to participate in an exercise programme six months after completing their group sessions (Daly et al., 2002). Consistent findings on the barriers to participating in cardiac rehabilitation included lack of physician referral, being female, being older, of lower educational status, having poor functional capacity and having had an angioplasty as opposed to CABG (Daly et al., 2002; Turner et al., 2002).
Cardiac rehabilitation was producing financial savings through a reduction in readmission rates to hospital and improvements in re-employment (Pell, 1997). However, as secondary care programmes became more comprehensive, particularly with the widespread prescription of statins and other cardiac medication, the evidence for the effectiveness of CR began to be questioned. West, in 2002, argued that there was little evidence for the current efficacy of cardiac rehabilitation following acute MI, as there had been few recent trials. He suggested that the historic trials from the 1980s may have lost relevance because of the changing methods of treatment in coronary care units. In particular, he argued that the prescription of medication and early use of thrombolytics, or "clot-busting" medication (which if given in the first few hours after a myocardial infarction can limit damage to the heart), led to the efficacy of CR being diminished. A multicentre randomised controlled trial in 14 hospitals of patients attending "comprehensive" CR, as opposed to "usual care", found no differences in mortality, further cardiac events, quality of life, anxiety or depression (West, 2002). Minor differences in outcome were evident in CR patients taking fewer long-acting nitrates and in positive uptake of exercise. Patients also reported that they found their CR programmes to be generally beneficial.
Recent Evidence for the Efficacy of Cardiac Rehabilitation
A meta-analysis by Clark et al. (2005) challenged West's argument for the potentially ineffectual nature of CR following the recent advances in secondary prevention medication. In a review of 63 randomised controlled trials, including exercise-only CR, comprehensive CR and educational(non-exercise) CR from 1966 to 2004, Clark found that CR reduced mortality by 47 per cent at two-year follow-up, decreased subsequent MI by 17 per cent over a median follow-up of 12 months and improved functional quality of life (Clark et al., 2005). Furthermore, Clark found that the mortality benefit did not differ significantly between the older trials from the 1980s that reported a decrease in mortality following CR, and the more recent trials. This puts into doubt the argument that secondary prevention medication had negated the impact of CR programmes. Although benefits did not differ between the three types of CR that were analysed in this study, Clark suggests that this kind of review does not allow us to "determine the incremental benefits of the various components of each intervention" (Clark et al., 2005) and therefore does not allow us to judge which aspects of CR are the important or "active" ingredients. Clark looked at three different types of CR in his meta-analysis: those programmes that incorporated education and counselling about coronary risk factors with a supervised education programme; those programmes that included risk-factor education or counselling but no exercise component; and those programmes that consisted solely of a structured exercise programme (Clark et al., 2005). However, Clark recognises a variety of different types, and a range of frequency and intensity, in the educational, counselling and exercise aspects of the CR programmes within his study.
A more recent meta-analysis by Linden (Linden et al., 2007) looked at the outcomes of studies where there was a psychological intervention involved in the CR programme. Linden found that across 23 studies, having a "clearly identifiable, distinct psychological treatment" as part of the patient's care led to a 27 per cent reduction in mortality for at least the first two years compared with normal care, and a reduced event reoccurrence at long-term follow-up. However these results only applied to men, with women not gaining the mortality benefits. This has led to a call for more research looking at gender outcomes in CR. It has also reinforced the importance of having multidisciplinary teams involved in delivering "comprehensive" cardiac rehabilitation.
Comprehensive Cardiac Rehabilitation
Dalal et al. (2004), describing the developments in CR at that time, outlined the distinction between "exercise only" and "comprehensive" cardiac rehabilitation. Comprehensive cardiac rehabilitation is described as including exercise training, behavioural change approaches, education and psychological support. In comprehensive CR, long-term maintenance of physical activity and lifestyle change is "coupled with structured follow up to tackle secondary prevention risk factors" (Dalal et al., 2004). However, the extensive surveys of cardiac rehabilitation provision in the UK that have been undertaken in the last 10 years (Bethell et al., 2001, 2007; Brodie et al., 2006; Lewin et al., 1998) have shown wide variance in how, by whom and to whom this "comprehensive" cardiac rehabilitation is delivered. Bethell found that, of the 236 CR centres that provided survey data, 194 had nurse involvement in their programmes, compared to only 37 programmes that had a psychologist involved in delivering cardiac rehabilitation (Bethell et al., 2001). An earlier study by Lewin et al. (1998) found that, although 70 per cent of CR programmes in their survey reported having five or more health-care professions represented in their CR teams, in only a small number of these teams did physicians (16 per cent), a psychologist (9 per cent) or a health promotion officer (6 per cent) give talks to patients or take any other part in the CR programme. Brodie et al. (2006), in a random sample survey of 28 CR programmes across England, reported that co-ordinators of the services considered lack of psychologists to be the greatest deficiency in the service (57 per cent) followed by lack of physiotherapists (43 per cent). These data become even more important when considering the findings of the meta-analysis by Linden et al. (2007), which showed mortality benefits in men, at two years post-cardiac event, when they were given a psychological treatment in addition to usual care as part of their cardiac rehabilitation. Overall the data suggest that CR in the UK can be described as multidisciplinary, but the distribution of health professionals across different CR programmes is inconsistent, ultimately affecting the quality of patient care.
Comprehensive Cardiac Rehabilitation in Gloucestershire
Comprehensive CR such as that delivered by the Gloucestershire CR team consists of a multidisciplinary team (MDT) of nurse, exercise specialist and psychologist attending each session of the seven-week programme (Cardiac Rehabilitation Gloucestershire, 2004). Access to a dietician is also provided as part of the MDT service. Health-outcome data from this programme have shown that comprehensive CR can be effective across a range of health outcomes when delivered in an integrated, multidisciplinary way (Bath et al., 2004). The conflicting health outcome data (Clark et al., 2005; West 2002), and the wide variation in the make-up of "comprehensive" CR programmes, raise the question of what are the specific ingredients that make for an effective CR programme. The findings of meta-analyses can cancel out contradictory findings where one CR service may be effective while another service is not (Michie et al., 2005). Different patient groups are often studied together in meta-analyses that consider the effectiveness of CR. So although there have been studies that have considered CABG patients alongside other patients with coronary heart disease following comprehensive CR (Engblom et al., 1992; Seki et al., 2003; Stagmo et al., 2001; Sundin et al., 2003; Vestold Heartcare Study, 2003), most studies have considered MI patients alone. Furthermore, if certain multidisciplinary aspects of CR are missing or poorly delivered it might well be that CR then becomes less effective. Psychological and social factors in particular are often poorly assessed and addressed in CR (Lewin, 1998), despite the fact that the government recognises that tackling these areas is an important goal of cardiac rehabilitation (Department of Health, 2000). The important psychological factors involved in CR will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.
While certain CR programmes have three or more different health professionals attending the programme for its duration (Cardiac Rehabilitation Gloucestershire, 2004), other CR programmes that would be described as "comprehensive" may not adhere to the guidelines laid down in the NSF for CHD. Brodie et al. (2006) stated that many programmes did not meet the Scottish Intercollegiate Guideline Network for CR (SIGN, 2002), which states that there should be 6.2 full-time equivalent staff to every 500 patients. This guideline was adopted by the British Association for Cardiac Rehabilitation (BACR), the recognised national body for cardiac rehabilitation in the UK, in its Standards and Core Components for Cardiac Rehabilitation in 2007, setting minimum requirements for CR teams that include, among others, psychologists, dieticians and audit and clerical staff.
The British Association for Cardiac Rehabilitation Standards and Core Components for Cardiac Rehabilitation (2007)
In defining a set of minimum standards and core components for CR services, the BACR recognised that it would be a "big challenge for many services" to achieve them. However the organisation is aiming for a more equitable provision of CR across the UK with clearly defined core components, so that the "integrity of cardiac rehabilitation" can be protected.
The BACR outlines six standards for CR:
1. A co-ordinator who has overall responsibility for the CR service.
2. A CR core team of professionally qualified staff with appropriate skills and competencies to deliver the service.
3. A standardised assessment of individual patient needs.
4. Referral and access for the targeted patient population.
5. Registration and submission of data to the National Audit for Cardiac Rehabilitation (NACR).
6. A CR budget appropriate to meet the full service costs.
Meeting these six standards is essential for CR services to attain "full rehabilitation programme" status, and the NACR database (referred to in standard 5) will collect data from programmes and monitor their effectiveness. In combination with the six well-defined core components for cardiac rehabilitation (lifestyle; education; risk-factor management; psychosocial cardio-protective drug therapy and implantable devices; long-term management strategy), these standards make it possible to see a future whereby cardiac rehabilitation is equitable and consistently practised across the UK.
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Excerpted from Cardiac Rehabilitation by Julian Bath Gail Bohin Christine Jones Eve Scarle Copyright © 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Excerpted by permission.
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